Rubia (2022) Here

: Including repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Efficacy and Limitations :

: Rubia highlights that ADHD is the most-imaged child psychiatric disorder. Research consistently shows small but reliable differences in the structure and functional connections of frontal, parietotemporal, and striatal brain regions. Rubia (2022)

Most studies have been small with heterogeneous designs, often testing effects on cognitive functions rather than clinical symptoms. functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

: Using EEG (most common), functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), and functional MRI (fMRI). Rubia (2022)

The article is frequently cited in discussions about the limitations of current ADHD drug therapies, which often lack long-term safety evidence and may be less preferred by parents and clinicians than non-pharmacological alternatives.